A Blockchain Based Hybrid ZKP-Merkle Tree Framework for Secure and Regulation-Compliant E-Governance Identity Verification

Archy Renaldy Pratama Nugraha; Yandra Arkeman; Irman Hermadi; Yani Nurhadryani

doi:10.48084/etasr.17425

Authors

Archy Renaldy Pratama Nugraha School of Data Science, Mathematics, and Informatics, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia | Informatics Study Program, International Women University, Bandung, Indonesia
Yandra Arkeman Department of Agro-Industrial Technology, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia
Irman Hermadi School of Data Science, Mathematics, and Informatics, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6985-5275
Yani Nurhadryani School of Data Science, Mathematics, and Informatics, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia

Volume: 16 | Issue: 3 | Pages: 36470-36481 | June 2026 | https://doi.org/10.48084/etasr.17425

Received: 23 January 2026 | Revised: 4 March 2026 | Accepted: 19 March 2026 | Online: 3 June 2026

Corresponding author: Archy Renaldy Pratama Nugraha

Abstract

Digital identity verification in e-governance faces a trilemma between security, scalability, and regulatory compliance with Indonesia's Personal Data Protection Law (UU PDP). To resolve this, in this paper, we propose the ZMC-Framework, a blockchain-based hybrid architecture integrating Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) for privacy-preserving verification and Merkle Trees for efficient, scalable data integrity on-chain. Its core innovation is a Legal Proof Protocol with 3+1 parameter augmentation, which cryptographically binds static identifiers to a user-controlled secret, ensuring compliance with UU PDP (data minimization) and UU ITE (authentication integrity) while aligning with key controls of the international ISO/IEC 27001:2022 standard. Evaluated on Polygon Mainnet, the framework demonstrates 29.9% lower operational costs for batch verifications and 50% better storage efficiency compared to pure ZKP systems. These results validate a practical solution to the verification trilemma, providing a secure, scalable, and legally sound foundation for public service identity management in Indonesia's digital governance ecosystem.

Keywords:

blockchain, zero knowledge proof, Merkle tree, digital identity verification, e-governance, regulatory compliance, UU PDP

References

M. Fudin and A. Rahayu, "Public Participation and the Disclosure of Public Information to Achieve Good Governance," in Proceedings of the Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Indonesian Politics, SIP 2019, 26-27 June 2019, Central Java, Indonesia, 2019.

A. Aldoubaee, N. H. Hassan, and F. A. Rahim, "A Systematic Review on Blockchain Scalability," International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, vol. 14, no. 9, 2023.

D. Cagigas, J. Clifton, D. Diaz-Fuentes, and M. Fernández-Gutiérrez, "Blockchain for Public Services: A Systematic Literature Review," IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 13904–13921, 2021.

A. Zwitter and J. Hazenberg, "Decentralized Network Governance: Blockchain Technology and the Future of Regulation," Frontiers in Blockchain, vol. 3, Mar. 2020.

A. P. Balcerzak, E. Nica, E. Rogalska, M. Poliak, T. Klieštik, and O.-M. Sabie, "Blockchain Technology and Smart Contracts in Decentralized Governance Systems," Administrative Sciences, vol. 12, no. 3, Aug. 2022.

"Daftar Kebocoran Data Pribadi di Era Jokowi, Paling Banyak di Instansi Pemerintah | tempo.co," Tempo, Sept. 21, 2024. https://www.tempo.co/politik/daftar-kebocoran-data-pribadi-di-era-jokowi-paling-banyak-di-instansi-pemerintah--7403.

X. Li, D. Wang, and M. Li, "Convenience analysis of sustainable E-agriculture based on blockchain technology," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 271, Oct. 2020, Art. no. 122503.

P. Dutta, T.-M. Choi, S. Somani, and R. Butala, "Blockchain technology in supply chain operations: Applications, challenges and research opportunities," Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, vol. 142, Oct. 2020, Art. no. 102067.

H. K. Abdali, M. A. Hussain, Z. A. Abduljabbar, and V. O. Nyangaresi, "Implementing Blockchain for Enhancing Security and Authentication in Iraqi E-Government Services," Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 18222–18233, Dec. 2024.

Bosch, Jaume Martin, Tangi, Luca, and Burian, Peter, European landscape on the use of blockchain technology by the public sector. Publications Office of the European Union, 2022.

F. Ghaffari, E. Bertin, N. Crespi, S. Behrad, and J. Hatin, "A novel access control method via smart contracts for internet-based service provisioning," IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 81253–81273, Mar. 2021.

V. Yatnalli, S. S. Bhusare, P. M. Dhulavvagol, G. Konnurmath, and R. Shetty, "DABFT: A Novel Adaptive Byzantine Fault Tolerance Framework for High-Performance Blockchain Consensus," Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 25313–25317, Aug. 2025.

A. Dolgui, D. Ivanov, S. Potryasaev, B. Sokolov, M. Ivanova, and F. Werner, "Blockchain-oriented dynamic modelling of smart contract design and execution in the supply chain," International Journal of Production Research, vol. 58, no. 7, pp. 2184–2199, Apr. 2020.

I. Saputra, Y. Arkeman, I. Jaya, I. Hermadi, and I. Sutedja, "Blockchain-based key-value store to support dynamic smart contract interaction in the agricultural sector," Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, vol. 33, no. 1, Jan. 2024, Art. no. 622.

S. Goldwasser, S. Micali, and C. Rackoff, "The knowledge complexity of interactive proof-systems," in Providing Sound Foundations for Cryptography: On the Work of Shafi Goldwasser and Silvio Micali, New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery, 2019, pp. 203–225.

M. J. Sousa, "Blockchain as a driver for transformations in the public sector," Policy Design and Practice, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 415–432, Oct. 2023.

E. Nyaletey, R. M. Parizi, Q. Zhang, and K.-K. R. Choo, "BlockIPFS - Blockchain-Enabled Interplanetary File System for Forensic and Trusted Data Traceability," in 2019 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain (Blockchain), Atlanta, GA, USA, Jul. 2019, pp. 18–25.

S. Nakamoto, "Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System."

L. Chen, L. Xu, Z. Gao, Y. Lu, and W. Shi, "Protecting Early Stage Proof-of-Work Based Public Blockchain," in 2018 48th Annual IEEE/IFIP International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks Workshops (DSN-W), June 2018, pp. 122–127.

ISO/IEC 27001:2022 Information security, cybersecurity and privacy protection — Information security management systems — Requirements. Switzerland: International Standard, 2022.

K. Peffers, T. Tuunanen, M. A. Rothenberger, and S. Chatterjee, "A Design Science Research Methodology for Information Systems Research," Journal of Management Information Systems, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 45–77, Dec. 2007.

A. R. Hevner, S. T. March, J. Park, and S. Ram, "Design Science in Information Systems Research," Management Information Systems Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 75–106, Mar. 2004.

Indonesia Personal Data Protection Law 2022. Republic of Indonesia, 2024.

Public information openness. Republic of Indonesia, 2008.

Second Amendment to law number 14 of 2008 on Electronic Information and Transactions. Republic of Indonesia, 2024.

J. vom Brocke, A. Hevner, and A. Maedche, "Introduction to Design Science Research," in Design Science Research. Cases, J. vom Brocke, A. Hevner, and A. Maedche, Eds. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020, pp. 1–13.

K. Sonbol, Ö. Özkasap, I. Al-Oqily, and M. Aloqaily, "EdgeKV: Decentralized, scalable, and consistent storage for the edge," Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing, vol. 144, pp. 28–40, Oct. 2020.

S. Liu, F. Mohsin, L. Xia, and O. Seneviratne, "Strengthening Smart Contracts to Handle Unexpected Situations," in 2019 IEEE International Conference on Decentralized Applications and Infrastructures (DAPPCON), Apr. 2019, pp. 182–187.

I. Saputra, Y. Arkeman, I. Jaya, I. Hermadi, N. A. Akbar, and I. Sutedja, "AniraBlock: A leap towards dynamic smart contracts in agriculture using blockchain based key-value format framework," Communications in Science and Technology, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 154–163, Dec. 2023.