The Influence of the Armor Stability Coefficient on the Hydraulic, Economic, and Environmental Performance of Rubble Mound Breakwaters

Riza Suwondo; Militia Keintjem; Made Suangga; Mohammed Altaee

doi:10.48084/etasr.13181

Authors

Riza Suwondo Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, 11480, Indonesia
Militia Keintjem Karbonara Research Institute, Jakarta, Indonesia
Made Suangga Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, 11480, Indonesia
Mohammed Altaee Environmental Research and Studies Centre, University of Babylon, Iraq

Volume: 15 | Issue: 6 | Pages: 28475-28480 | December 2025 | https://doi.org/10.48084/etasr.13181

Received: 4 July 2025 | Revised: 21 August 2025 | Accepted: 2 September 2025 | Online: 8 December 2025

Corresponding author: Riza Suwondo

Abstract

The climate change and sea level rise are increasing the need for resilient and sustainable coastal protection. Breakwaters are essential for mitigating the erosion and flooding, and the stability coefficient (K_D) of armor units plays a critical role in determining the hydraulic performance, material quantities, and sustainability. However, limited research has explored how varying K_D affects the armor unit weight, embodied carbon, and construction costs. This study investigated the relationship between rubble and mound breakwaters designed under severe storm conditions. Hudson’s formula was applied across a K_D range of 2–24 to represent natural rock and engineered concrete armor types. The required armor unit weights were calculated, and quantities were used to estimate the embodied carbon using a cradle-to-gate assessment and the total costs based on the Indonesian market prices. The results show that increasing K_D reduces the required armor weight from ~4.7 t to 0.4 t, embodied carbon per meter from 28 tCO₂e to 11 tCO₂e, and construction cost from 215 million to 85 million IDR per meter. However, the reductions plateaued beyond K_D values of 12–16, suggesting an optimal range for balancing the stability, sustainability, and cost. These findings highlight that selecting an armor with a higher stability coefficient can significantly improve the environmental and economic performance of breakwaters, supporting a more sustainable coastal infrastructure that is resilient to extreme wave conditions.

Keywords:

rubble mound breakwater, stability coefficient, armor unit design, embodied carbon, coastal engineering sustainability

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