The Mechanical Properties of Kaolin-Based Geopolymer Concrete with Portland Cement Addition
Received: 11 January 2025 | Revised: 6 April 2025, 25 April 2025, and 13 May 2025 | Accepted: 15 May 2025 | Online: 24 May 2025
Corresponding author: Steenie E. Wallah
Abstract
In this study, Portland cement was added to a mixture to address low early strength challenges in kaolin-based geopolymers. The effects of various curing conditions were examined, including room temperature and elevated temperatures (60°C and 90°C), as well as the influence of Superplasticizer (SP) dosages (0–3%) on compressive and tensile strengths. The results showed that curing at 60°C for 24 hours provided the optimal balance between early and long-term strength development, achieving compressive strengths of 26.7 MPa at 28 days. Although curing at 90°C offered rapid early strength, it resulted in diminished long-term performance due to potential microstructural damage. SP addition improved workability and mechanical properties, with the optimal dosages being identified as 1% for room-temperature curing and 2% for elevated-temperature curing. The findings stress the importance of curing conditions and material composition in achieving high-performance geopolymer concrete. This type of concrete, when cured under controlled elevated temperatures, is suitable for precast applications where thermal curing is feasible, making it a promising eco-friendly alternative for structural elements in sustainable construction.
Keywords:
elevated temperature curing, geopolymer concrete, kaolin, Portland cement addition, superplasticiserDownloads
References
A. M. Rashad, "Alkali-activated metakaolin: A short guide for civil Engineer – An overview," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 41, pp. 751–765, Apr. 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.12.030
O. Ayeni, A. P. Onwualu, and E. Boakye, "Characterization and mechanical performance of metakaolin-based geopolymer for sustainable building applications," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 272, Feb. 2021, Art. no. 121938.
L.-M. Bjerge and P. Brevik, "CO2 Capture in the Cement Industry, Norcem CO2 Capture Project (Norway)," Energy Procedia, vol. 63, pp. 6455–6463, 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.11.680
J. Davidovits, "Geopolymers and geopolymeric materials," Journal of Thermal Analysis, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 429–441, Mar. 1989. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01904446
Z. H. Zhang, H. J. Zhu, C. H. Zhou, and H. Wang, "Geopolymer from kaolin in China: An overview," Applied Clay Science, vol. 119, pp. 31–41, Jan. 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2015.04.023
"On the Development of Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete," ACI Materials Journal, vol. 101, no. 6, 2004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14359/13485
X. Ge, Y. Liu, Y. Mao, X. Hu, and C. Shi, "Characteristics of fly ash-based geopolymer concrete in the field for 4 years," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 382, Jun. 2023, Art. no. 131222. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131222
Z. Ou, R. Feng, T. Mao, and N. Li, "Influence of mixture design parameters on the static and dynamic compressive properties of slag-based geopolymer concrete," Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 53, Aug. 2022, Art. no. 104564. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104564
Y. Wang and J. Zhao, "Comparative study on flame retardancy of silica fume-based geopolymer activated by different activators," Journal of Alloys and Compounds, vol. 743, pp. 108–114, Apr. 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.01.302
S. S. Hossain, P. K. Roy, and C.-J. Bae, "Utilization of waste rice husk ash for sustainable geopolymer: A review," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 310, Dec. 2021, Art. no. 125218. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125218
Z. Du, S. Sheng, and J. Guo, "Effect of composite activators on mechanical properties, hydration activity and microstructure of red mud-based geopolymer," Journal of Materials Research and Technology, vol. 24, pp. 8077–8085, May 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.05.049
F. Pacheco-Torgal, S. Jalali, J.P. Castro Gomes, "Utilization of mining wastes to produce geopolymer binders," in Geopolymers, Structures, Processing, Properties and Industrial Applications, Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering, 1st ed., Elsevier, 2009, pp. 267–293. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845696382.2.267
M. J. A. Mijarsh, M. A. Megat Johari, and Z. A. Ahmad, "Synthesis of geopolymer from large amounts of treated palm oil fuel ash: Application of the Taguchi method in investigating the main parameters affecting compressive strength," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 52, pp. 473–481, Feb. 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.11.039
J. Moon et al., "Characterization of natural pozzolan-based geopolymeric binders," Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 53, pp. 97–104, Oct. 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.06.010
M. A. Gómez-Casero, C. De Dios-Arana, J. S. Bueno-Rodríguez, L. Pérez-Villarejo, and D. Eliche-Quesada, "Physical, mechanical and thermal properties of metakaolin-fly ash geopolymers," Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy, vol. 26, May 2022, Art. no. 100620. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scp.2022.100620
Z. Luo, B. Zhang, J. Zou, and B. Luo, "Sulfate erosion resistance of slag-fly ash based geopolymer stabilized soft soil under semi-immersion condition," Case Studies in Construction Materials, vol. 17, Dec. 2022, Art. no. e01506. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01506
E. Yavuz, N. I. Kul Gul, and N. U. Kockal, "Characterization of class C and F fly ashes based geopolymers incorporating silica fume," Ceramics International, vol. 48, no. 21, pp. 32213–32225, Nov. 2022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2022.07.163
G. Ogwang, P. W. Olupot, H. Kasedde, E. Menya, H. Storz, and Y. Kiros, "Experimental evaluation of rice husk ash for applications in geopolymer mortars," Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 160–167, May 2021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobab.2021.02.008
S. Detphan and P. Chindaprasirt, "Preparation of fly ash and rice husk ash geopolymer," International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 720–726, 2009.
M. S. K. Chaitanya, T. V. Nagaraju, L. V. K. R. Gadhiraju, V. R. Madepalli, and S. Narayana Raju Jampana, "Strength and micro-structural performance of geopolymer concrete using highly burned rice husk ash," Materials Today: Proceedings, May 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.04.617
L. Kuang, G. Li, J. Xiang, W. Ma, and X. Cui, "Effect of seawater on the properties and microstructure of metakaolin/slag-based geopolymers," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 397, Sep. 2023, Art. no. 132418. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132418
A. Gupta, "Investigation of the strength of ground granulated blast furnace slag based geopolymer composite with silica fume," Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 44, pp. 23–28, 2021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.06.010
N. Ranjbar, M. Mehrali, A. Behnia, U. J. Alengaram, and M. Z. Jumaat, "Compressive strength and microstructural analysis of fly ash/palm oil fuel ash based geopolymer mortar," Materials & Design, vol. 59, pp. 532–539, Jul. 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.03.037
J. Liu, J.-H. Doh, D. E. L. Ong, H. L. Dinh, Z. Podolsky, and G. Zi, "Investigation on red mud and fly ash-based geopolymer: Quantification of reactive aluminosilicate and derivation of effective Si/Al molar ratio," Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 71, Jul. 2023, Art. no. 106559. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106559
K. Nazir, O. Canpolat, M. Uysal, A. Niş, and Ö. F. Kuranlı, "Engineering properties of different fiber-reinforced metakaolin-red mud based geopolymer mortars," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 385, Jul. 2023, Art. no. 131496. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.131496
Y. Zhang, H. Liu, T. Ma, G. Gu, C. Chen, and J. Hu, "Understanding the changes in engineering behaviors and microstructure of FA-GBFS based geopolymer paste with addition of silica fume," Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 70, Jul. 2023, Art. no. 106450. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106450
G. Liang, H. Zhu, H. Li, T. Liu, and H. Guo, "Comparative study on the effects of rice husk ash and silica fume on the freezing resistance of metakaolin-based geopolymer," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 293, Jul. 2021, Art. no. 123486. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123486
M. O. M. Mashri, M. A. M. Johari, Z. A. Ahmad, and M. J. A. Mijarsh, "Enhancing the properties of UPOFA-based geopolymer mortar via the incorporation of eggshell ash and silica fume," Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 65, Apr. 2023, Art. no. 105677. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.105677
U. Zakira, K. Zheng, N. Xie, and B. Birgisson, "Development of high-strength geopolymers from red mud and blast furnace slag," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 383, Jan. 2023, Art. no. 135439. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135439
A. Kumar, Rajkishor, N. Kumar, A. K. Chhotu, and B. Kumar, "Effect of Ground Granulated Blast Slag and Temperature Curing on the Strength of Fly Ash-based Geopolymer Concrete," Engineering, Technology & Applied Science Research, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 13319–13323, Apr. 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.48084/etasr.6874
B. Ilic, A. Mitrovic, and L. Milicic, "Thermal treatment of kaolin clay to obtain metakaolin," Hemijska industrija, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 351–356, 2010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2298/HEMIND100322014I
K. L. Konan, C. Peyratout, A. Smith, J.-P. Bonnet, S. Rossignol, and S. Oyetola, "Comparison of surface properties between kaolin and metakaolin in concentrated lime solutions," Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, vol. 339, no. 1, pp. 103–109, Nov. 2009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2009.07.019
A. Alujas, R. Fernández, R. Quintana, K. L. Scrivener, and F. Martirena, "Pozzolanic reactivity of low grade kaolinitic clays: Influence of calcination temperature and impact of calcination products on OPC hydration," Applied Clay Science, vol. 108, pp. 94–101, May 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2015.01.028
A. M. Rashad, "Metakaolin as cementitious material: History, scours, production and composition – A comprehensive overview," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 41, pp. 303–318, Apr. 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.12.001
E. Badogiannis, G. Kakali, and S. Tsivilis, "Metakaolin as supplementary cementitious material: Optimization of kaolin to metakaolin conversion," Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, vol. 81, no. 2, pp. 457–462, Jul. 2005. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-005-0806-3
Y. M. Liew et al., "Optimization of solids-to-liquid and alkali activator ratios of calcined kaolin geopolymeric powder," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 37, pp. 440–451, Dec. 2012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.07.075
C. M. Ruzaidi et al., "Study on Properties and Morphology of Kaolin Based Geopolymer Coating on Clay Substrates," Key Engineering Materials, vol. 594–595, pp. 540–545, Dec. 2013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.594-595.540
P. Nuaklong, V. Sata, and P. Chindaprasirt, "Properties of metakaolin-high calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete containing recycled aggregate from crushed concrete specimens," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 161, pp. 365–373, Feb. 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.11.152
N. A. Jaya, L. Yun-Ming, M. M. A. B. Abdullah, H. Cheng-Yong, and K. Hussin, "Effect of Sodium Hydroxide Molarity on Physical, Mechanical and Thermal Conductivity of Metakaolin Geopolymers," IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 343, Mar. 2018, Art. no. 012015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/343/1/012015
M. Sarkar and K. Dana, "Partial replacement of metakaolin with red ceramic waste in geopolymer," Ceramics International, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 3473–3483, Feb. 2021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.09.191
O. Ayeni, A. P. Onwualu, and E. Boakye, "Characterization and mechanical performance of metakaolin-based geopolymer for sustainable building applications," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 272, Feb. 2021, Art. no. 121938. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121938
T. Bakharev, "Geopolymeric materials prepared using Class F fly ash and elevated temperature curing," Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 1224–1232, Jun. 2005. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.06.031
Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Petronas, Seri Iskandar, Malaysia and E. Al. Nurruddin, "Methods of curing geopolymer concrete: A review," International Journal f Advanced and Applied Sciences, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 31–36, Jan. 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21833/ijaas.2018.01.005
S. Pangdaeng, T. Phoo-ngernkham, V. Sata, and P. Chindaprasirt, "Influence of curing conditions on properties of high calcium fly ash geopolymer containing Portland cement as additive," Materials & Design, vol. 53, pp. 269–274, Jan. 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.07.018
T. Suwan and M. Fan, "Influence of OPC replacement and manufacturing procedures on the properties of self-cured geopolymer," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 73, pp. 551–561, Dec. 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.09.065
P. Nath and P. K. Sarker, "Use of OPC to improve setting and early strength properties of low calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete cured at room temperature," Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 55, pp. 205–214, Jan. 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.08.008
A. Mehta and R. Siddique, "Properties of low-calcium fly ash based geopolymer concrete incorporating OPC as partial replacement of fly ash," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 150, pp. 792–807, Sep. 2017. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.06.067
A. M. Kaja, A. Lazaro, and Q. L. Yu, "Effects of Portland cement on activation mechanism of class F fly ash geopolymer cured under ambient conditions," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 189, pp. 1113–1123, Nov. 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.09.065
R. Gao, W. Yang, Z. Duan, H. Liu, Q. Deng, and M. Hua, "Effect of Ordinary Portland Cement on Mechanical Properties and Microstructures of Metakaolin-Based Geopolymers," Materials, vol. 15, no. 24, Dec. 2022, Art. no. 9007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15249007
D. De Klerk, A. Naghizadeh, S. O. Ekolu, and M. Welman-Purchase, "Recycled cement use to produce fly ash – based geopolymer binders suitable for ambient curing: Comparison with slag effects," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 468, Mar. 2025, Art. no. 140394. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.140394
C. Y. Heah et al., "Curing Behavior on Kaolin-Based Geopolymers," Advanced Materials Research, vol. 548, pp. 42–47, Jul. 2012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.548.42
B. Mo, H. Zhu, X. Cui, Y. He, and S. Gong, "Effect of curing temperature on geopolymerization of metakaolin-based geopolymers," Applied Clay Science, vol. 99, pp. 144–148, Sep. 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2014.06.024
C. Y. Heah et al., "Effect of Curing Profile on Kaolin-based Geopolymers," Physics Procedia, vol. 22, pp. 305–311, 2011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phpro.2011.11.048
Q. Li et al., "Effect of Curing Temperature on High-Strength Metakaolin-Based Geopolymer Composite (HMGC) with Quartz Powder and Steel Fibers," Materials, vol. 15, no. 11, Jun. 2022, Art. no. 3958. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15113958
M. Criado, A. Palomo, A. Fernández-Jiménez, and P. F. G. Banfill, "Alkali activated fly ash: effect of admixtures on paste rheology," Rheologica Acta, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 447–455, May 2009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00397-008-0345-5
B. Nematollahi and J. Sanjayan, "Effect of different superplasticizers and activator combinations on workability and strength of fly ash based geopolymer," Materials & Design, vol. 57, pp. 667–672, May 2014. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.01.064
F. Muhammad et al., "Strength evaluation by using polycarboxylate superplasticizer and solidification efficiency of Cr 6+, Pb 2+ and Cd 2+ in composite based geopolymer," Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 188, pp. 807–815, Jul. 2018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.033
T. T. Nguyen, C. I. Goodier, and S. A. Austin, "Factors affecting the slump and strength development of geopolymer concrete," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 261, Nov. 2020, Art. no. 119945. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119945
G. Xiong and X. Guo, "Effects and mechanism of superplasticizers and precursor proportions on the fresh properties of fly ash – slag powder based geopolymers," Construction and Building Materials, vol. 350, Oct. 2022, Art. no. 128734. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128734
"Requirements for Structural Concrete for Buildings.", SNI 2847:2019, National Standardization Agency of Indonesia, 2019.
Downloads
How to Cite
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Steenie E. Wallah, Gabriel B. Rerungan, Joshua I. R. Muchaimin, Hendrico J. Waraba, Timothy C. D. Kakunsi, Dody M. J. Sumajouw, Servie O. Dapas
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain the copyright and grant the journal the right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) after its publication in ETASR with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
